Ahmad Shah Abdali was a famous king of Afghanistan in the 18th century. He is considered the founder of modern Afghanistan and for Afghans, he is a national hero. Even in Pakistani mythology, he stands on a high pedestal. Though I am not sure why. After all, we the inhabitants of this region were at the receiving end of his adventures. We even have named a missile after this famous warrior perhaps to instill fear in Indians.
History is interesting to read, but challenging to explain or interpret. Therefore, I shall not focus on the merits or demerits, or achievements of Abdali, as it is a very complex subject, that depends on the perspective from which it is viewed.
Abdali was an Afghan who rose to prominence in the service of Nadir Shah of Iran and accompanied him during his sack of Delhi in 1739. Upon the assassination of Nadir Shah, he looted a portion of his enormous treasure and fled along with his Afghan followers to Kandahar, where he established himself as an independent ruler. The riches he acquired from Nadir Shah's treasure included the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond.
After becoming king, he embarked upon a campaign of consolidation, conquest and plunder. He is most famous for his victory in the third battle of Panipat in 1761. But that was not the only time he invaded India. Mr Hari Ram Gupta in his book "Later Mughal History of the Panjab", mentions ten invasions of Punjab and Northern India, and I would like to share this information with my readers.
The motives behind these invasions are understandable. To consolidate his grip over power, Abdali needed money and prestige, and what better place there could be to achieve these goals than India. It was also important to keep the troublesome chieftains and tribes busy in the business they liked the most. Otherwise, they would fall upon each other or rebel against the king.
Ahmad Shah Abdali. (Picture: https://menonimus.org/ahmad-shah-durrani-brief-biography/)
1. The First Invasion (1747-48)
The Mughals had already lost control over Kabul and Peshawar after the invasion of Nadir Shah in 1739. In 1747, Abdali launched his first invasion of Punjab at the invitation of the governor of Lahore, Shahnawaz Khan, who was not on good terms with Delhi. Abdali marched from Peshawar in December 1747 and reached Shalamar Garden on 10th January 1748. In the meantime, Shahnawaz Khan changed his mind and refused to cooperate with Abdali. The matter was settled the next day on the battlefield. Shahnawaz was defeated and fled to Delhi. Abdali captured the city without any further resistance and plundered the suburbs, particularly Mughalpura. The city itself was spared upon payment of 3 million rupees.
The aging, indolent, and feeble Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah finally rose from his stupor and sent a huge army northward to confront Abdali. After some manoeuvring, the two armies met at Manupur, about 16 km northwest of Sirhind, on 11th March 1748. The result was in favour of the Mughals, and Abdali had to retreat. However, the Mughals did not take full advantage of this victory and failed to pursue him. Thus, Abdali's first adventure ended in failure.
Aam Khas Bagh Sirhind. Photo by Wikipedia
2. The Second Invasion (1749-50)
Abdali was keen to retrieve his honour and crossed the Indus in December 1749. He was aware of the chaotic conditions in the Mughal darbar and was determined to take full advantage. Muin ul Mulk was the governor of Lahore at that time, and he marched to meet the invader. He encamped at Sodhra, 5 km east of Wazirabad, while Abdali stayed at Kopra, 7 km further east. Negotiations then started between the two camps. Abdali demanded the revenues of four Mahals,Gujrat, Aurangabad, Pasrur, and Sialkot. Emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadur thought it prudent to accept Abdali’s demands rather than fight. Abdali, thus satisfied, returned to Afghanistan.
Shivala Temple, Sialkot. (24.07.2019.) Photo by the Writer
3. The Third Invasion (1751-52)
The weakness shown by Ahmad Shah Bahadur was an open invitation for further aggression. An excuse for this invasion was readily found when the revenue of the aforementioned four Mahals was not paid on time. Abdali sent his emissary to demand the arrears, but the governor, Muin ul Mulk, expressed his inability to pay the full amount. Instead, he sent Rs. 9 lakhs and promised to pay the rest later. However, Abdali was not satisfied and continued his march on Lahore. He laid siege to the city, and after a prolonged struggle lasting several months, Muin ul Mulk—better known in history as Mir Mannu, surrendered to Abdali on 6th March. He had no other option, as he received no help or reinforcements from Ahmad Shah Bahadur, the Mughal emperor in Delhi. Though Mir Mannu fought valiantly, and Abdali was impressed by his bravery, the outcome was inevitable. In the end, a treaty was concluded between the two rulers, under which Punjab, including Multan, was ceded to Abdali’s empire, and Abdali appointed Muin ul Mulk as his governor at Lahore.
It had been a hard and bitter campaign. The city was plundered, and vast areas around Lahore were devastated. During the siege, an army of Abdali also conquered Kashmir, and this beautiful valley was permanently lost to the Mughals.
Lahore Fort. Photo by Wikipedia
4. The Fourth Invasion (1756-57)
The governor of Lahore, Moin ul Mulk, died in 1753, and his wife, Mughlani Begum, assumed control of the government of Punjab. However, in 1756 she was deposed and taken captive by the Wazir, Imad ul Mulk, who appointed Adina Beg as the new governor. To settle scores with her opponents, Mughlani Begum invited Ahmad Shah Abdali to invade India, promising him crores of rupees from Delhi. This was an opportunity Abdali could hardly resist.
Marching from Kandahar, Abdali reached Lahore on 20th December 1756. By this time, the Mughal Empire had sunk to the lowest depths of weakness, and Abdali entered Delhi on 28th January 1757 without facing any resistance.
What happened next is narrated in Siyar Al Mutakhreen, by Ghulam Hussain Khan Tabatabai:
"From that day his troops commenced plundering and sacking the city mercilessly, and they kept on dragging away people's wives and daughters so cruelly that a large number of them overborne by the delicacy of their feelings preferred to commit suicide and God only knows the number and nature of all other violence committed in that unfortunate city."
Abdali employed all kinds of threats, torture, and devious means to extort money from the highest officials of the Delhi Darbar as well as from the wealthy traders of the city. From Delhi, he marched southward and captured the fort of Ballabgarh. From this base, expeditions were dispatched in all directions to loot, plunder, commit indiscriminate killings, and outrage women. The holy Hindu cities of Mathura and Brindaban were devastated and plundered by Jahan Khan, Abdali’s commander-in-chief. Agra suffered the same fate, where two thousand people were massacred.
These depredations ceased only when cholera broke out in Abdali's camp, claiming hundreds of soldiers daily and forcing him to return to Delhi. On his return, the city was once again subjected to plunder. Earlier, Abdali had married his son Timur Shah to the daughter of Emperor Alamgir II. Now, he himself forcibly married Hazrat Begum, the 16-year-old daughter of the late Emperor Muhammad Shah. Soon after, Abdali returned to Afghanistan with enormous booty carried on 28,000 camels, horses, mules, bullock carts, and elephants.
He appointed his eleven-year-old son, Timur Shah, as governor of Lahore under the supervision of his general Jahan Khan, and also annexed the province of Sirhind. However, by this time it was not easy to rule Punjab. The Sikhs had risen in rebellion, taking full advantage of the prevailing chaos, while other regional powers, such as Adina Beg, the governor of Jalandhar Doab, were also unwilling to cooperate with the Afghans. As a result, Afghan control over Punjab remained weak and precarious.
Red Fort, Delhi. Photo by Wikipedia
5. The Fifth Invasion (1759-61)
The fifth invasion of Abdali proved to be the most famous. As noted above, the Afghans were unable to govern Punjab effectively. To further his own interests, Adina Beg invited the Marathas, who were in control of Delhi—to invade and occupy Punjab. On the approach of the Marathas, Jahan Khan fled from Lahore on 9th April 1758, and the Marathas pursued him as far as Attock, which they held for four months.
Earlier, in August 1757, Delhi had also fallen to the Marathas, forcing Najib ud-Daula, the de facto ruler of Delhi and Abdali’s close ally, to flee the city. Emperor Alamgir II now stood reduced to a mere puppet in Maratha hands. At this juncture, both Najib and Alamgir appealed to Abdali for help against the Marathas. Abdali, recognizing the rising power of the Marathas and the threat they posed, decided to intervene to support his allies and wrest control of Punjab from them.
He arrived at Lahore in October 1759. The following year unfolded in a prolonged campaign, with several battles fought across the vast plains of North India. Ultimately, Abdali and his allies faced the Marathas on the historic battlefield of Panipat on 13th January 1761. The Marathas suffered a crushing defeat, and their supremacy in North India was broken for many years. For Abdali, this was the greatest victory of his military career. He remained with his army in Delhi for the next two months before returning to Afghanistan on 22nd March 1761.
The War Memorial at Panipat. Photo by tribuneindia.com
6. The Sixth Invasion (1762)
On his return journey after the battle of Panipat, Ahmad Shah’s army was relentlessly harassed by the Sikhs, who constantly attacked, killed, and plundered the Afghans, heavily burdened with their enormous booty. From this point onward, the Mughals were completely eliminated from Punjab, leaving the contest for its control solely between the Sikhs and the Afghans.
By this time, the Sikhs had emerged as the most dominant power in Punjab. As soon as Abdali withdrew, the Afghans rapidly lost control over vast territories. The Sikhs grew so bold that in early 1762 they defeated and killed Khwaja Obaid, the governor of Lahore, and occupied the city.
Infuriated by these developments, Ahmad Shah marched once again to chastise the Sikhs. Anticipating his arrival, the Sikhs evacuated much of the countryside and gathered at Kup, a village about 22 miles south of Ludhiana. Their strength was estimated at nearly 50,000. On 5th February 1762, they were taken by surprise when Abdali’s forces descended upon them, resulting in a long and bloody battle in which thousands of Sikhs were slain. After this campaign, Abdali marched back to Lahore, but not before desecrating the most sacred shrine of the Sikhs at Amritsar, the Darbar Sahib (Golden Temple), which he destroyed.
Abdali remained in Punjab until December 1762, staying at Lahore. However, he failed to restore order or establish lasting control, as the Sikhs continued their guerrilla warfare, raids, and plunder unchecked.
Battle of Kup, Memorial.
Wadda Ghallughara kup rohira 2020 in , photos, Fair,Festival when is Wadda Ghallughara kup rohira 2020 - HelloTravel7. The Seventh Invasion (1764-65)
After the departure of Abdali after the previous campaign, the field was open for the Sikhs. They spread their reign of terror and plunder to the whole of Punjab, and even beyond. In the east, they crossed the Jamuna and caused great disturbance in Rohilkhand. In the west, even the mighty Rohtas Fort fell to them, and in the south they plundered Multan. Besides looting towns and cities, they destroyed and desecrated mosques and forbade Muslims to perform their religious obligations. Afghan faujdars either fled in the face of the Sikhs or were killed, and complete anarchy prevailed in Punjab at this time.
Abdali could not ignore this challenge to his authority and prestige for long. He entered Punjab in the winter of 1764–65 to crush the Sikh jathas. However, despite his best efforts and many inconclusive engagements, he could not break the power and resistance of the elusive Sikhs. Once again, he satisfied himself by destroying the gurdwara at Amritsar. After staying in Lahore for some time, Abdali marched toward Ambala with the intention to go to Delhi. During this journey, he vented his fury on the local population and thoroughly plundered the whole region on both sides of the Beas and Jalandhar Doab. However, after reaching the Jamuna River he changed his mind and returned to Punjab. Again, some fierce clashes erupted between the two sides on a daily basis during his passage through Jalandhar Doab, but no decisive battle was fought. Abdali had realized by this time that any further stay in Punjab was futile and returned to Afghanistan without wasting any time. This seventh campaign of Abdali proved to be a total failure and he did not achieve any of his aims. He left Punjab in April 1765.
Rohtas Fort. 16.01.2022. (Photo by the writer)
8. The Eighth Invasion (1766-67)
Ahmad Shah Abdali had left Punjab in April 1765, and only a month later the Sikhs expelled his viceroy from Lahore and struck their own coin. Abdali was not yet ready to give up such a valuable province of his empire as Punjab. He returned the next year and crossed the Indus at Attock in December 1766. The Sikhs tried to oppose him twice on both sides of the river Jhelum but failed. Abdali entered Lahore on 22nd December 1766, unopposed, and soon Amritsar too fell to his general. The Sikh sardars dispersed to different parts of Punjab. Now the great chases began. The Sikh bands resorted to their favourite tactics of guerilla warfare, i.e. hit and run, attacking baggage trains, and harassment. Many skirmishes and running battles were fought, but no decisive action took place. By now, Abdali fully realized that he could not subdue the Sikhs. He tried to reach a settlement with them but received no positive response. Even during his presence, the Sikhs were active throughout Punjab and even entered the Doab of Ganga–Jamuna and attacked the territories of Abdali's allies.
Abdali marched as far as Ismailabad, 20 miles south of Ambala. He did not go any further and for some time encamped at Machhiwara, near the Sutlej. He sent several expeditions against the Sikhs but without any success. However, one of his generals, Jahan Khan, was able to inflict a crushing defeat on Sikh bands busy in their depredations in the Gangetic Doab, near Shamli. Abdali did not stay long in Punjab and returned to Afghanistan. This expedition proved to be a total failure.
9. The Ninth Invasion (1768-69)
This expedition was very short and without any significance. He entered Punjab in December 1768. He came as far as the Chenab, while the advance guard arrived at Eminabad. But on this occasion, his fortunes were at their lowest ebb. His health was failing, and his prestige was waning. Internal disturbances in Afghanistan were also adding to his worries. So, due to many factors, he was compelled to return in January 1769.
An old Lodhi era mosque at Eminabad. 23.07.2019. (Photo by the writer)
10. The Tenth Invasion (1769-70)
This last expedition of Abdali to achieve wealth and glory, and to divert the attention of his troublesome people to foreign adventures, proved to be the most miserable. This time he could not move beyond Peshawar, and after staying there for a short time, returned to Kandahar.
Thus ended an epoch in the history of Punjab that left deep imprints on the history and minds of its people. The Sikhs were most directly affected but, at the same time, were the greatest beneficiaries. It is interesting to note that Abdali first came to India in 1739, when he accompanied his mentor Nadir Shah. It is also noteworthy that these invasions did not end with the death of Abdali in 1772 and continued almost to the end of the eighteenth century by his predecessors. That would be the topic of my next article.
Tomb of Ahmad Shah Abdali, Kandahar. (Photo by: Wikipedia)
I would appreciate your suggestions for improving this post or pointing out any mistakes.
Tariq Amir
July 17, 2023.
Islamabad
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