Last time I visited Harappa, one of the most famous cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, on March 25, 2009, and I had no intention of visiting it again. After all, how much new could I have expected in a five-thousand-year-old city? But I happened to be in the vicinity, actually passing right in front of the gates of the site, and thought to take a cursory look. I must admit, I was proved wrong. Not that any startling new discoveries have been made during the past decade, but the surprise was a new museum at the site, which had opened just a few days earlier. It was indeed a pleasant surprise to see a beautiful new building of the museum. The museum is located at: 30°37'31.01"N, 72°51'58.40"E, adjacent to the ancient site to the north.
Harappa had attracted the attention of archaeologists even before the beginning of British rule in Punjab. However, it was first identified as a very important archaeological site in 1921 by Daya Ram Sahni, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India. His excavations revealed well-planned streets, baked brick structures, and distinctive pottery, leading to the recognition of Harappa as one of the major centers of the Indus Valley Civilization. The very next year, Mohenjo-Daro was also discovered. These discoveries opened a new chapter in the study of ancient South Asian history.
Major General Sir Alexander Cunningham (1814 - 1893), was a military officer by profession, but took a keen interest in history and antiquities. He founded the Archaeological Survey of India in 1861 and was appointed his first Director General. He mentioned Harappa in reports. Below is the original entry from the 1872-73 ASI Report by Cunningham:
"The ruins of Harapa are the most extensive of all the old sites along the banks of the Ravi. On the north, the west, and the south, there is a continuous line of mounds about 3,500 feet in length; but on the east side, which is only 2,000 feet in length, there is a complete gap of 800 feet, for which I am unable to account. The whole circuit of the ruins is therefore about 12,500 feet, or nearly 2.5 miles. The highest mound is that to the north-west, which is 60 feet above the fields. On the south-west and south the mounds range from 40 to 50 feet in height, and on the north side towards the old bed of the Ravi, from 25 to 30 feet. Burnes speaks of "a ruined citadel on the river-side of the town," by which I suppose he means the western side, which is the most commanding portion of the ruins. Masson calls it "a ruinous brick castle," and distinctly states that it was situated to the west, on what he erroneously supposed to be a natural rocky height, but which is only an accumulation of masses of brick walls and broken bricks. He describes "the walls and towers of the castle" as being "remarkably high, though, from having been long deserted, they exhibit in some parts the ravages of time and decay." I believe that Masson's visit was made in 1826 ; and just five years later, when Burnes was on his way to Lahor, the brick castle was already "ruinous." In 1853 I was informed that Mer Singh, a Sikh, had built a fort at Harapa, some 70 years ago, or about A.D.1780. Perhaps this was the castle seen by Masson and Burnes.
In 1853, and again in 1856, I traced the remains of flights of steps on both the eastern and western faces of the high mound to the north-west, as well as the basement of a large square building. Here the people say was the site of a great Hindu temple in the time of Raja Har Pal or Hara Pala. But there are no traces of any castle at the present day.
So the experts were aware of the existence of an archaeological site at Harappa, but its true significance was realized after the proper excavations by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921. In ancient times river Ravi flowed close to Harappa; now it is almost 9 km to the north. The site covers an area of nearly 200 acres. First, we shall visit the museum and later on take a tour of the site itself. As I mentioned above the new museum building has only recently been opened.
The earliest occupants of Harappa settled in this area in about 5500 years ago (during Hakra Phase). They established a small village in a high place along an old river channel. Over 700 years, this village grew to become a small town (during the Kot Diji Phase) and then within 200 years became one of the largest cities of antiquity (during the Harappa Phase). The earliest levels at the archaeological site of Harappa were defined only in 1996, and some of the most significant pieces from recent excavations in the Hakra and Kot Diji Phase levels are shown in this case. They include beads made of materials like lapis lazuli, agate and carnelian, which were traded from great distances and broken pieces of pottery with post-firing inscriptions that pre-date by nearly 1000 years of similar practices in the urban Harappa Phase.
Rough and rugged implements, unearthed by the eroding current of river Soan near District Rawalpindi carry the Saga of human toil and labour to the inter-glacial ages, roughly estimated at 500,000 years from now. The stone, choppers and hand axes which are hardly different from river pebbles to the layman’s eye, have revealed a chapter to the archaeologists proving that even in so remote a period, the man had proved his intellectual superiority over all other beings of the jungle.
Kot Diji is the earliest known fortified town of the Indus Valley Civilization. The remains of the town are situated about 20 km south of Khairpur. The excavations at this site have added another 300 to 500 years to the prehistory of Pakistan. The people of Kot Diji lived in well-settled communities. They built their houses with mud and stone, manufactured fine stone implements and made exquisite pottery. The pottery had colourful painted designs like the people of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. The women adorned themselves with necklaces, garlands, and bangles. Their children played with toys of stone and baked clay, very similar to those found in Mohenjo-Daro.
Amri
At Amri existed yet another important town of the Indus Valley Civilization. The remains are now lying in the north and north-east of the village situated on the right bank of the Indus between Mohenjo-Daro and Hyderabad. The excavations of this site demonstrate it to be a contemporary of Kot Diji. These excavations lead to unearthing of flat rectangular houses of various sizes with doors and with mud-floorings. Some of the houses are constructed with mud-bricks. A wealth of material consisting of pottery, terracotta-cakes, chert-flakes and other small objects have been collected from here. Decorative designs on pottery are in black on red background.
Nul Culture
Rakhigarhi (6300–2800 BCE)
This specific type of pottery belongs to the Rakhigarhi valleys and is known as Nal Ware. This ceramic production was soon recognized as outstanding for its technological characteristics as well as the artistry and variety in the fine ware. The distinctive shapes, remarkable palette of painted decoration, and the sophistication of decorations distinguish Nal pottery. Usually, the fine ware is wheel-made featuring decorative motifs such as geometrical designs, floral elements, continuous friezes, loops, and step motifs. This collection of material was handed over to the curator of the Harappa Museums by Dr. Mark Kenoyer.
Harappan cities were centers of trade and commerce. The Harappans traded with distant lands such as Mesopotamia. They used standardized weights and measures. The discovery of seals and weights in large numbers indicates the importance of trade in Harappan society. The Harappans exported goods such as cotton textiles, beads, and pottery. They imported raw materials like copper, gold, and semi-precious stones.
Architecture
Harappan cities were well-planned with wide streets, public buildings, and drainage systems. The houses were made of baked bricks and had flat roofs. Some buildings had multiple stories. The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is an example of advanced engineering. The cities had granaries, workshops, and residential areas. The uniformity in construction suggests a centralized authority.
Pottery from Harappa
Harappan pottery is known for its fine quality and beautiful designs. It was made on a potter’s wheel and baked in kilns. The pottery includes jars, bowls, and dishes. Some pots have painted designs of animals and geometric patterns. Pottery was used for storage, cooking, and religious purposes. The craftsmanship reflects the artistic skills of the Harappan people.
The foundation of a remarkable civilization known as the Indus Valley Civilization was laid in the areas of modern day Pakistan, about 5,500 years ago. It flourished in the vast plains of the Indus river and its tributaries, including the dry bed of the Hakra river in Cholistan and the adjoining territories. Harappa and Mohenjodaro were two major urban centres of this civilization. Since 1921, a series of archaeological excavations have brought to light the remains of systematically planned cities and settlements that represent outstanding examples of a well organized civic life.An earlier phase of this culture, called Kot Dijian was found while digging below the fortification wall of Harappa. At the north end of the mound "AB" an even earlier Hakra Phase of occupation, dating 3500 - 2800 BS, has been discovered. Due to its historical and archaeological importance, the archaeological site of Harappa is not only protected under the Antiquities Act 1975 but is also placed on the tentative list World Heritage List of UNESCO.
This area was excavated by Madho Sarup Vats from 1926 to 1934. This area of the site reveals an extensive cemetery of people who lived at Harappa during the final period of the Indus Civilization, some time after 1900 B.C., commonly referred to as the cemetery "H" culture, these people had a distinctive pottery characterized by elaborate painted motifs and unique shapes. Excavations in this cemetery revealed two distinct levels of burials. In the upper levels the burials consisted of large painted jars in which the skulls and bones of individuals were placed. The fragmentary and incomplete nature of the bones in each pot indicates that the corpse had been exposed to the elements and later the bones were collected and deposited in the burial jar. Other smaller vessels that may have contained offerings for the dead were placed around the large jar. In the lower levels, burials were made in graves oriented in different directions most commonly with the heads to east and the feet to the west. These burials were made in rectangular pits and various quantities of pottery vessels were buried along with the deceased. These vessels were probably filled with offerings of food and drink. All of the cemetery "H" burials were dug into a thick layer of debris that covered the ancient land surface to the south underneath this debris layer lies the cemetery of the Harappa Culture.
Mound "AB" is large walled mound that measures about 450 meters north-south and some 244 meters east-west. The details of the mud bricks city wall can be seen further along in a deep trench along the western edge of the mound. This area of the mound "AB" lies inside the southern edge of the massive mud brick city wall that surrounds the highest part of the city.
Most of the houses found in this area were made of mud bricks and baked brick and have been reburied to protect them from decay. The seals and the inscribed objects from the very lowest levels can be compared with similar objects from Mound "F" to the north. The pottery and the terracotta figurines also appear to date this area to the middle of the Harappan period. Excavations in this area were undertaken by Madho Sarup Vats from 1926 - 1934.
The ruined mosque appears to have been built in the Mughal Period (1526 - 1707 AD), originally referred to as an Eid Gah. This structure was probably built as place for prayer to commemorations of a renowned person from the local community and it may be associated with the tomb of Baba Noor Shah Wali to the west. The mosque measure 12 meters north-south and may have had a rectangular shape, no indication of roof have been found. It has five arches in the western wall which are found only in a few other early mosques generally associated with family burial structures. The mosque was constructed with reused Harappan bricks and is built on top of a massive city wall of the Harappan period (2600 - 1900 B.C.) that enclosed the part of the site called Mound "AB". The Harappan city wall was constructed of mud bricks with baked bricks facing and superstructures.
This area was designated as trench No. 1 by Madho Sarup Vats and revealed important architectural remains as well as some spectacular artifacts. In the northern part of the trench, is a large east west streets that is approximately 8 meters wide. To the north and south of the street are compact neighborhoods consisting of small houses with grain bins bathing platforms and one house has a very large platform made of bricks laid on edge. To the south west of this structure earlier excavators found bronze cooking pot covered with a bronze plate. Inside the pot were numerous copper weapons and tools, many of which are on display in the museum. This house may have belonged to a bronze merchant as some of the pieces were being reshaped, while others were unused. This area is quite important because of the large number of inscribed seals and tablets that were recovered from the houses as well as debris of the street. Many of the inscribed steatite tablets are identical to those found in excavations of Mound "E" and Mound "ET" on the eastern edge of the city. Excavations in 1996 uncovered a hearth beneath the lowest levels of the street that can be dated to around 2450 B.C which corresponds to the first habitation of this suburd the Mound "F". Excavations were first carried out in this area by Madho Sarup Vats from 1926 - 1934. Later excavations were carried out by Dr. R.H. Meadow and Dr. J.M. Kenoyer.
Mound "P" is the northern walled suburb of Mound "AB" and was built at mature Harappan period around 2450 B.C. This area has series of fourteen houses all built on the same basic plan that appear to represent a single episode of construction as much as is seen today in housing development schemes. Originally referred to as the work man's quarters these large houses are probably the houses and shops of wealthy merchants. To the west is a large kiln for melting the metals or firing pottery. A number of other kilns were also found in this general area. One house is thought to have been the home of a goldsmith as it contained a hoard of gold and agate jewelry. In the northern portion of this area is a distinct neighborhood which has a small well and circular brick platform with a space in the center. These circular platforms were situated inside small rooms approximately 5 meters squares. Their precise function is not known but it is unlikely that they were used for processing grain as was first thought. In addition to pottery and terracotta figurines there are important discoveries from this area including a red sandstone torso of a male figurine, numerous seals, inscribed tablets, jewelry hoards, copper and bronze tools and manufacturing waste from the various workshops. Excavations were carried out in this area by Madho Sarup Vats from 1926 to 1934 and by Sir Moritmer Wheeler in 1946. Except the large kiln, most of the structures have been reconstructed above the original walls to protect the ancient bricks and foundations.
This area of the mound represents part of a suburb of Mound "AB" and excavations indicated that it was surrounded by a mud brick perimeter wall. The earliest levels date to the middle of the Harappan period around (2450-2200 B.C.) and it continued to be inhabited untild around 1900 B.C. Numerous habitation layers, many of which were badly disturbed by brick robbers are represented by the fragmentary house walls. In the lower levels is the largest building of the Indus Valley of Harappan Civilization. This structure is built on a massive foundation made of mud brick with a baked brick revetment wall that measures 2 metes high over 50 meters north-south and 40 meters east-west. Two rows of six rooms are arranged along a central passageway that is about 7 meters wide and partly paved with baked bricks. each room measures 15.2 x 6.1 meters and has three sleeper wall with air space between them. A wooden superstructure supported in some places by large columns may have been built on top of the brick foundations with stairs leading up from the central passage area. Small triangular openings may have served air ducts to allow the flow of fresh air beneath the hollow floors. Archaeologist Madho Sarup Vats suggested this building was used as a granary.
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